Sight-Singing Study

Techniques for Learning and Practicing
Sight-Singing Skills

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Getting a Feel for the Beat
Sing or listen to a well known folk song and clap or sway to the pulse of the music.
Practice clapping to the sound of a metronome. Set the metronome to around "80". See if you can obliterate the beats made by the machine. Continuing to clap, begin to count in groups of two, three or four (e.g. "one, two, one, two, one, two, one, two...etc."). Give a little emphasis to the "one" count while continuing to listen and time your claps with the beats of the metronome. Try changing the metronome speed to both slower and faster tempos (speeds).
Practice tapping your left hand on your left thigh ONCE for each time you tap your right hand on your right thigh TWO times. After a while count aloud as in the previous example. Then try one tap on the left for every three taps on the right. Then one on the left for every four taps on the right. Reverse hands and repeat. Vary the tempo.
Listen to or sing well known popular, folk or kids' songs while clapping or tapping. Once you have a beat going, see if you can count groups of two, three or four (as above), which ever seems to fit the song.

Practicing Rhythms

After getting a feel for the beat, learning to feel and read rhythms is the next task. The beat (or pulse) and rhythms are the foundational elements in most music because man is essentially a temporal being and appreciates things for the most part as they are set in time. Without a strong sense of the beat and of the patterns (to be discussed presently) these beats can be divided into, the task of adding pitches to the picture will seem chaotic. On the other hand, once one gains an inner sense of these time elements, the motivation for learning the pitches is greatly enhanced. That is because the musical sense of a piece being learned is really based on the feeling for the flow of the piece. That flow has everything to do with time and less to do with the actual content (pitches) of the music. It is too bad, in a way that the word music (derived from the word 'muse') does not describe this situation. For we have, in general, a very limited concept of music, except when the word appears in a more general context as, for example, "the music of life" etc. One can, in fact, appreciate "music" in the pure monotone rhythms of drums. I stress this idea, because most students think that learning to sight-sing is mostly a matter of interval training and pitch reading. To repeat: once the feeling for the flow of the music has been learned the task of learning the pitches becomes ever so much easier. Without the rhythmic framework, however, one is in a chaotic world of random sounds.
Organization of Beats
As discovered above in the section "Getting a Feel for the Beat", beats are found in groups. The most common groupings are of 2, 3 or 4 beats. In terms of the written notation of these groupings, the following table will be helpful as a guide. Focus on the line that begins with the word "Quarter". The notes you see on this line are called "quarter notes".

The quarter note is the one most commonly used to represent the length of one beat. The chart above gives the values (durations) of the notes in relation to each other. Thus, the eighth notes below the quarter notes last exactly one half as long and therefore two of them occupy as much time as one quarter note does. Likewise, each sixteenth note lasts one fourth as long as a quarter note etc. The chart does NOT describe how the notes appear in actual musical pieces. That is because each quarter note is here seen within it's own "box", separated from it's neighbor. Usually a certain number of quarter notes are grouped with a given "box" which is called a "measure". The following picture illustrates this:

Here are four measures (delineated by "barlines"). Each measure contains four quarter notes. Each quarter note represents one beat. Therefore, there are four beats in each measure. The "time signature", 4/4, located after the "treble clef" is an abbreviation for this state of affairs. The "4" on top indicates how many beats there are per measure. The "4" on the bottom indicates the fact that it is the quarter note which represents the duration of one beat. There are many pieces of music in which not the quarter note, but the eighth note or the half note represents the beat. More of this later.

How To Count Beats
There are three basic steps to counting beats.

First, the speed of each beat must be decided upon. The metronome can be used to give you a relative sense of speed, as each speed is marked with a number. The number 60 represents 60 beats per minute, or one beat per second. The number 120 would represent 120 beats per minute or a beat per half second etc. It is important to establish a regular speed (tempo) and to stick with it until you decide to change it. Pick a tempo that is slow enough for you to do the counting easily and comfortably. Start with a beat=92 or thereabouts (that is, approximately a beat per 3/4 of a second) and go from there, up or down, according to your needs.
Next begin to count the number of beats per measure in time with the metronome or, absent this device, as steadily as you can. Thus, count "one, two, three, four, one, two, three, four, etc." Give a little added emphasis to the number "one" each time you say it. This will allow you to sense the grouping of the quarter notes into fours. You might think of a march to help you get a sense of this 4/4 "meter" (Think of meter as the word is used poetry).
After you have counted several measures (to establish a comfortable tempo), continue to count, but now begin to clap once for every beat at the same time you say each number. Again, emphasize the first beat of each measure slightly by clapping a little louder on that beat. Practice looking at the notes in the example above while you clap and count. Keep your eyes moving. Don't stop at the barlines, they are just markers and do not have duration as do notes. Practice this example several times stopping each time at the end of the line. Each time you begin again, first count without clapping for a measure or two (you needn't read the notes when doing this). Then, when you feel ready, start to clap and read the quarter notes. Begin to understand, spatially, where each beat falls within a given measure, so you can pick out any individual beat without hesitation.

Now practice these other meters (3/4 and 2/4) one at a time. Use the same procedure as above. The only difference is the number of beats per measure (as indicated by the top number in the time signature. Do not forget to add a little emphasis, in both counting and clapping, to the first (strong) beat of each measure. Practice the 3/4 example until you get the feel for this 'waltz type' meter (technically the basic variety of what is known as 'triple meter') before going on the one in 2/4 (a 'swaying type meter' technically the basic variety of what is known as 'duple meter'). Don't forget to keep your eyes moving. This is a very important skill in the development of sight-singing and the earlier it is made a habit, the easier things will be as you progress to more difficult music.

The Silent Beat
While sight-singing one cannot, of course, count the beats out loud. Many people resort to tapping a foot to keep track of when the beat falls. This, however, is not recommeded, for instance, when making a recording, as the softest sounds may be picked up. But perhaps more importantly, whatever is made less outward and more inward is also made more "one's own" in the sense that it becomes more part of the internal system and less dependent on external conditions. This is as true in the case of learning to sense the beat as it is in the case of learning the musical intervals. If you can hear in your 'inner ear' or mind what an interval sounds like, you will be less likely to be distracted by sounds around you when you are singing with others. Practicing a silent beat will develop the sense of a strong internal pulse. Again there are several steps in this practice. Important note: The following exercise should be attempted only by those who have mastered counting and clapping or tapping first. If the silent beat proves frustrating to you do not feel as though you need to learn it right away. People differ greatly in their ability to sense the beat internally. If you find the exercises that follow this section too difficult to practice with a silent beat feel free to tap your hand on you knee or your foot on the ground to keep a concrete sense of the beat.

Start again with the example in 4/4 and begin to count the beats ("one, two, three, four etc.). Use a metronome if necessary to keep a steady beat.
Begin swinging your right arm (unless you are left-handed and feel more comfortable with the left arm) up and down in a small arc (maybe 20 degrees) from the elbow joint. Start with the arm in the "up" position; it will then fall. The bottom of each swing will be will occur at the same time you say the beat. Thus, in each measure your arm will fall to the bottom of the arc 4 times, once for each beat. Practice this awhile in each meter as you count the beats and look at the notes on the staff. Practice both with (if necessary) and without the metronome.
The next step is critical and needs some explanation: Begin to substitute a neutral sound for the numbers you are counting. "Tah" is a good one, but you could use "loo", "bah", similar sounds ending in a vowel sound. Thus, for "one, two, three, four" you would substitute "tah, tah, tah, tah". You should now be swinging your arm, singing "tah" on a monotone pitch (don't make it too low or your energy level will drop and the practicing will lack motivation!!), and watching the notes. From time to time mentally remark which (what number) beat you are on.
IMPORTANT POINT: It is important, from the outset, to understand that beats are merely points in time which divide up the time into regular segments of equal duration. The beat itself has no duration. The time that lasts between the beats can be filled either with sound (designated by "notes") or silence (designated by "rests"). This point is easily seen in practice: If you stop the sound right after singing "tah" on the first beat, and wait for the next beat to begin singing again, you are marking only the beginning and ending lines of demarcation of the beats. The actual time between beats is measured from the beginning of one beat (e.g. when the arm falls to the bottom point of the arc) to the beginnng of next beat (when the arm again reaches the bottom). (NB: The ending of the one beat is the same as--or occurs at the same time as-- the beginning of the next beat!!)

The sound, "tah", which you are producing to mark the beginning and ending of the beat is saying: "There is some kind of note (whether a quarter note, an eighth note etc.) that is written at the point where the beat begins; the sound "tah" marks the beginning of that beat. In the 4/4 example you have been practicing, the first quarter note falls on the first beat of the measure and it's duration in sound lasts until the second beat starts. The second quarter note, similarly, falls on the second beat of the measure and it's sound lasts until the third beat, and so on. In order to properly perform what is written in this 4/4 example, you must keep the sound going when singing "tah" from beat to beat and articulate each new "tah" at the beginning of each new beat letting the "ah" sound continue throughout the duration of that beat until the next articulation. . This way you are simultaneously delineating the beginnings/endings of the beats and accurately performing the durations of the quarter notes. Since no "rests" are written in this example, there should be no pauses in sound until the end (except in those places where, if necessary, a breath must be taken without interupting the rhythmic flow). In fact "the end" does not occur until the beginning of a beat that is not actually marked with either a note or a rest. The performer must mentally see this ending as lying just beyond the end of the written piece and continue to sing "tah" until the "end" is reached as indicated by the last swing (begun at the time the last note has been initiated) of the arm to the bottom of it's arc.

How to Count Subdivisions of the Beat

Eighth Notes

In the chart of relative note values above, you can see that the duration of the eighth note is exactly one half as long as that for a quarter note. This, of course, makes mathematical sense as 1/8 + 1/8 = 1/4. In simple music the eighth note usually falls (is written) either on the beat or mid-way between beats. Counting eighth notes simply involves adding the syllable "and" for the eighth note that falls mid-way between beats. If the eighth note falls on the beat it is counted with the appropriate beat number. See the following examples: (Note that each eighth note is written separately in the chart above, whereas in the examples immmediately below the eighth notes are grouped into pairs by the use of a barline across the top of the two notes. This form of notation is used so that it is easier to see the beat divisions. Sometimes you will see four or more eighths grouped together in such a fashion. This grouping does not change the duration of the notes being sung or played. Also be sure that no extra time is added between the groupings, which would make the second eighth note longer than the first. This will cause a distortion in the rhythm

To clap and count the 4/4 example begin by repeating the count: "one & two & three & four &" several times at a speed of about one note (that is, a spoken syllable) per half second. Do not look at the notes on the staff at first. Just get the rhythm going. If you are using a metronome, set it to around "120" for each eighth note. As with counting quarter notes, be sure to give a slight emphasis to the first eighth note of the first beat of each cycle of four beats.
After you are counting steadily, begin to clap once with each syllable and repeat the four-beat cycle several times until you are counting and clapping smoothly.
Finally, look at the notes on the staff and begin to follow them as you count and clap the eighth note rhythm pattern for four measures. Stop at the end of the line. Then repeat several times, first counting and clapping for a measure or two (to "establish" the beat and tempo before reading the notes).
Repeat this process for the 3/4 and 2/4 meters, remembering to give adequate emphasis to the first beat of each measure. Practice changing from one meter to the other. Also practice changing the tempo. Try both faster and slower tempos. Practice both without and without a metronome.
The silent beat with eighths--After you can clap or tap and count eighths with some assurance, begin to practice these meters with a silent beat and a neutral syllable ("tah" etc.). In the case of eighth notes, notice that just as the bottom the swing of your forearm coincides with the beat, the top of the swing coincides with the mid-point between beats. This point is exactly where the second eighth note of each two note group occurs. Practice timing the swing with the clicks of the metronome while counting "one & two & three & four &...". Each click now represents an eighth note. Once, you are confident of this coordination of up and down with your counting replace each spoken syllable with "tah". Finally, look at the notes on the staff and follow with your eyes as you continue to sing "tah" and swing your forearm up and down. Practice the other two meters in the same way, until you can switch from one meter to the other without hesitation.
Now try setting the metronome to one "click" per beat instead of one click per half beat (as it has been set so far). Now the clicks will coincide only with the initial eighth note of each beat as you sing.
Finally turn off the metronome and see if you can still sense its beating as an "lingering echo" that amounts to an internalization of the beat. This is what you are striving for. You can try hearing this echo as either two clicks per beat or one.

Practicing Varying Rhythm Patterns (quarters and eighths)

The 8 measures above are to be practiced in a similiar manner as the previous rhythm exercises. The steps are as follows:

Clap and Count--Start to count using the smallest note value (the eighth). This means that you will count "one & two & one & two & ...etc." instead of "one, two, one, two...etc." Set the metronome to about 108 for every syllable. After counting several measures without clapping, begin to clap the values of the notes as you look at them. You may want to clap just one measure several times in a row before proceeding to the next measure. When clapping the quarter notes the hands should remain together at least until the word "two" is spoken. As the word two is said the hands will separate in order to prepare to clap the next note. The goal is to count and clap all eight measures (without repeating any measure) straight through. The last measure is occupied by a half rest. A "rest" is written to indicate that no sound is to be played or sung. A half rest occupies as much time as a half note (see the chart of relative note values above), or in other words as much time as two quarter notes. The hands must come apart when you say "one" in the measure with the half rest, and you should continue to count until you say "one" again, (not written in the example) in order to feel the full time value of the last measure.
As for the "dotted quarter notes" which are easily identified: the dot represents half the value of the note beside which it is placed. Thus, in the fifth measure of the example above, quarter note that has a dot beside it has an extra eighth note of time value added to it. You will sometimes see this measure written as follows:

The curved line which connects the quarter note to the following eighth note is called a "tie". It ties the two notes in question together. The first note is played or sung and the second serves only to lengthen the amount of time the first note sounds. That is, the second note is not clapped, the hands merely remaining together for the additional time of the eighth note. (It may help to press the hands slightly together on the count of "two" in order to feel the beat at this point.) Thus, there should be only two claps in the measure. The two representations of the measure in question are, in this way, identical in their performance. The rhythmic patterns in measures 5, 6, and 7 may be seen more easily in their "tied" versions. Both versions are given below:

You will notice that measure 7 has no dotted note, but presents similar if slightly different rhythmic problem. In fact, measure 7 is very much like measure 6. In both measures the second beat is not clapped, but the note just before it is clapped. This results in what is known as "sycopation". In this example, a "weak" part of the beat is accentuated by having the strong part of the beat held over by being tied to the weak one before it. In the case of the 2/4 meter, the weak parts of the beats are those eighth notes which occur on "&", while the strong parts of the beat are the notes that fall on "one" or "two". In measure 7 (see the "tied version), a slight accent is properly felt on the clap for the "1&" eighth note preceding the "2" eighth note which is tied to it. Again, the hands should be lightly pressed together on "two" to feel "the beat". This counter-action of accents results in the feeling of syncopation. The only differnce between measures 6 and 7 is that the last eighth note is clapped in measure 7, whereas it is not clapped in measure 6. Though this results in a feeling of syncopation in both measures, the feeling is stronger in measure 7 because a weak part of the beat is again clapped on "2&". This tends to highlight the perception that the strong "2" was not clapped.

Another suggestion which can help to keep track of the beats occur is to make small vertical "hash" marks above the staff where they occur. In the 2/4 example this would be above those places marked "1" and "2". This visual aid will help you follow the rhythms more easily until you are familiar with the various rhythmic patterns, which in reality are not that many.
Using a Silent Beat and Singing "Tah"--The second step in practicing the eight measure example is to use the silent beat and to sing the "tah" syllable instead of clapping. If necessary, review the silent beat skills previously detailed for the practice of quarter and eighth notes.
As you begin to count "one & two &...etc.", start to swing your arm up and down as previously. When you are ready, begin to sing "tah" for the notes as they are written, holding the sound until the next note demands another articulation of "t" in "tah". Take breaths at appropriate places in order to keep the rhythms going. The dotted quarter note in measure 5 will require a down swing, an up swing, and another down swing before the eighth note (denoted by the next up swing) is sung. The attention must be split somewhat between the notes on the staff and the awareness of the swinging arm, which tells you which beat (or half beat) you are on. Most of your attention is normally devoted to looking at the notes on the staff. But take the effort to be aware of the arm movement, as this will keep you on track rhythmically. After a while, the feeling for the beat will be more internalized and automatic. By that time you will not need to consciously split your attention like this. Do this exercise both with and without the metronome. You can set the metronome to beat for the eighth notes at first, then for the quarter notes only.

Learning the Note Names on the Piano

Perhaps the most fun way of learning the notes on the piano (and for that matter on the staff as well) is to purchase a software program which makes a game out of the task
Short of getting a program like Music Ace, the task of learning the notes is merely one of the repetition of striking the proper key (e.g. "C") in it's different locations (the number depending on how many sets of octaves your keyboard has) and naming it out loud as it is struck. There are a total of seven white keys (C,D,E,F,G,A,B). C is the note to the left of the groups of two black keys. The other notes are placed successively after C. The pattern of two black and three black keys is the key to quickly recognizing the position of any given note (e.g. the note D is easily seen as that note which lies between the groups of two black keys).
One idea is to carry around a picture of a keyboard such as this:

Another idea is to make seven 3x5 flash cards, each with a keyboard picture of an octave. On each card is placed an "x" to mark one of the seven keys. On the other side is the name of the note.
Learning the names of the notes is much like learning multiplication tables. Repetition is the key. Software programs merely motivate and make the process more entertaining. The trade-off is that one does not develop the skills of self-motivation and discipline which are helpful for developing many other skills of music training.

Learning the Note Names on the Staff

The following diagram is a graphic depiction of the notes you will need to learn to nae as they appear on the staff.

You need to be able to identify the name of a note according to its position on the staff. Notice, that as on the keyboard, there are only seven different note names. Unlike, the keyboard, however, there is no repeating pattern of black and white keys to serve as a guide. The lowest notes appear on the bottom to the far left and ascend as they cross the page (corresponding to their relative positions at the keyboard). The bass and treble clef symbols at the far left split the staff in two, so to speak. The two notes in the middle that appear one on top of the other, represent the same note, "middle C", at the piano. Suggestions for learning to gain fluency in naming these 23 notes follows. Depending on your goals, you may want to concentrate on one clef at a time. For instance, if you are singing soprano or alto in a choir, learning to read the treble clef is, of course, a more pressing concern than learning both treble and bass clefs. Ultimately, however, it is wise to learn the notes of both clefs, since you will be able to keep track of other parts as well as your own. This will be important if you are interested in a broad understanding and appreciation of the music you hear and sing.

Like learning the names of the notes on the piano, this is a skill which requires much consistent repetition. Because there are more items to learn, it does take a little more time. But, with as little as 10-15 minutes per day regularly set aside you will be able to name the notes with ease in no time.
The use of 3x5 flash cards in conjunction with a note speller is a good combination. On the front of the card draw a five lined staff with either a treble or bass clef and place a note on one of the lines or spaces. One the back of the card write in the name of the note. Learn the lines and spaces of one clef separately at first then combine them. Then repeat for the other clef. Finally, combine the clefs.
Playing, Singing and Visualizing the Diatonic Scales on the Keyboard
The philosophy behind my method of learning to sight-sing is based on the correlation, mentioned above, between the arrangement of the notes on the piano and on the staff. Keyboards, being totally linear in their contruction, are uniquely suited to mimic the appearance of the notes on the staff, which is also a totally linear creation. Unlike wind instruments, in particular, where sequential note frequencies (higher/lower pitches) are often realized by holding down what appear to be random grouping of fingers in no particular order; and even unlike fretted instruments, where sequential fingering is broken up, of necessity, by the short length of the fingerboards, the piano and related keyboard instruments are long enough to represent more than the entirety of notes on the grand staff. This fact means that the keyboard can exactly represent the notes as they are arranged on the staff as a stepwise ladder from low to high, from left to right. Thus, once the patterns of the different scales are learned on the piano, these patterns can be directly translated to work upon the staff, which is, after all, where our goal of sight-singing leads us. So first, let's learn the scales as they are represented on the keyboard. The steps to learning the scales are as follows:

Learning to play on the piano and sing 6-8 of the 12 major diatonic scales is the first task after one has gained some fluency with note names. The sound of the major scale is what most people associate with the sung syllables: "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do". You can start to sing this scale on any given pitch. What stays constant is the spacing between the notes. This spacing gives the characteristic sound of the major scale. Likewise, you can start to play this scale on any note of your choosing at the piano. As long as the pattern of spacing between the notes remains the same for each scale, all the scales will sound similar to each other, just higher or lower in pitch. Before discussing this pattern in detail, I would suggest that you sit down at a keyboard and place your right thumb on the note "C". Use the C which is at the lower part of your vocal range and center yourself at the keyboard accordingly. With the thumb(1), index finger(2) and middle finger(3), play the notes C, D, E or do, re, mi in the scale beginning on "C". Next turn your thumb under the 3rd (middle) finger and continue to play the remaining notes F, G, A, B, C with the respective fingers--thumb(1), index finger(2), middle finger(3), ring finger(4) and little finger(5). You have just played an ascending octave of the C major scale.
Repeat this several times to get used to the finger pattern. Your goal is to play the scale at a rate of about one note per half second (set the metronome to 120 if you decide to use it to keep the beat). After you can do this in an smooth and even manner, try coming down the scale (without stopping and without repeating the higher "C" which should be played just once. Thus: "do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, do, ti, la, so, fa, mi, re, do" or "1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1" or "C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C, B, A, G, F, E, D, C". Once you can play the scale evenly up and down without stopping at a rate of 1/2 second or so per note, start to sing, as you are playing, one of the three verbalizations just listed. Watch the keys closely as you are playing, with the idea of memorizing the pattern of black and white notes surrounding the white keys that you are actually striking. This is the pattern for the C Major Scale. Try all three ways of singing the scale while accompanying yourself at the piano. The number of times you play each version depends on how soon you reach the goal of fluency at the rate of a half second per note. (Note: you can, of course use your left hand instead of the right, in which case the fingering is reversed: i.e. "5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5").
The next step is to close your eyes and play and sing the scale again. Can you still see the after-image of the pattern of the scale? Practice in the same manner as above until you acheive the half second per note rate in each version of singing.
Next play the scale on a table top or in the air again while singing and visualizing the pattern of notes. Repeat as necessary for fluency.
The last step in learning the scale of C Major is to sing the scale while visualizing it, but without playing it in any way. When you can do this, you have succeeded in imprinting the "look" of the C Major scale in your memory. This is a logical place to stop and assimilate your work before going on. Of course these four initial steps many take two or three days to accomplish, but if done with consistency, regularity and concentration, learning new scales will become easier and easier and take less and less time and effort.
The process of learning scales other than C Major involves adding black notes. A digression into SCALE THEORY and it's application to the keyboard is necessary at this point:
Intervals are defined as the difference in pitch (frequency) between two notes. The smallest distance that is traditionally able to be notated on the staff as well as to be played on the piano is called a half-tone or half-step. This is the basic unit, multiples of which make up all the other intervals. Two half-tones make up a whole tone. The difference between a whole-tone and a half-tone is not readily seen on the staff, since the literal drawn distance from any given line to the next space is always the same. Thus, when a note is drawn on a given line and another note is drawn on a space next to it, either up or down, it is impossible to tell (unless you are taught the rules) whether the interval denoted is a whole-tone or a half-tone.

On the piano, however, one can, with a little attention, readily see the difference between whole and half tones. On the piano, THE HALF-TONE IS PLAYED BY GOING FROM ANY KEY TO THE NEXT ADJACENT KEY, UP OR DOWN. What this means is that there are a total of THREE different "looks" as to how a half-tone might appear on the piano:

1. Going from a white key to the next adjacent (without a black key in between) white key. (By the way, this "look" occurs only between the notes F-E and B-C on the keyboard.
2. Going from a white key up (to the right) to the adjacent black key.
3. Going from a white key down (to the left) to the adjacent black key.

Similarly, on the piano, THE WHOLE-TONE IS PLAYED BY GOING UP OR DOWN TWO HALF-STEPS FROM ANY STARTING KEY. This results in a total of FOUR different "looks" as to how a whole-tone might appear on the piano.
1. Going from a white key to a white key (e.g. C to D) with a black key in between.
2. Going from a black key to a black key (e.g. C-sharp to D-sharp) with a white key in between.
3. Going from a white key up to a black key with a white key in between.
4. Going from a white key down to a black key with a white key in between.

From this meager beginning one can, with a little practice, see the various distances between the intervals on the piano.

As you play the C Major scale, you are playing a pattern of intervals, namely: C to D (a whole-tone); D to E (a whole-tone); E to F (a half-tone); F to G (a whole-tone); G to A (a whole-tone); A to B (a whole-tone); and B to C (a half-tone). This pattern of whole and half tones remains the same for any major scale and that is why all major scales sound "the same" (just higher or lower in pitch).

Thus, if you wished to start to play a major scale on the key of G, for instance, you would use the "whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half" pattern to determine which notes to play. You would arrive at the following letter names: G, A, B, C, D, E, F-sharp(#), G. As you can easily see, in order to preserve the half-tone interval from the seventh to the eighth keys (B to C in the scale of C major) you must use the F#. All the other keys, though white, happen to fall into the Major Scale pattern without alteration. Another way of stating the pattern is to say that all of the intervals are whole-tones except two: those between the 3rd and 4th notes (3-4) and between the 7th and 8th notes (7-8) of the scale. These two intervals are half-tones.
What follows is a schematic summary of the material above.
The diatonic major scale is a pattern of pitches which remains the same for each major scale. The following diagram depicts the relationships between each of the tones of the major scale, whether the scale is a C major scale (i.e. a major scale starting on the note C), a D major scale, an E-flat major scale etc. Memorize this pattern and practice playing and singing it until it is a deeply ingrained aural pattern. Also memorize the three symbolic ways of representing the pattern. Note especially the appearance of the half step between scale degrees 3 and 4 and 7 and 8.

Examples: The Major Scales of C, G and F (F uses a B-flat(b))

The process for learning to play and sing scales other than C Major, is exactly the same as for that first scale. The order in which to learn the scales proceeds according to a pattern called the Circle of Fifths. Simply stated (at least for the "sharp" scales) the next scale to learn always starts on the fifth note of the previous scale. For example. The fifth note in the scale of C is G. Therefore, G Major is the next scale to add to your repetoire. Going further, D is the fifth note of the G scale so D Major is the next scale to practice. In this way each scale will have one new sharp added and that additional sharp will always be the 7th note of the new scale. Remember to figure out the note pattern of a given scale by using the "whole whole half whole whole whole half" template of intervals.
For scales which add flats, instead of sharps, you begin the new scale on the 4th note of the previous scale. For example, the 4th note of the C scale is F, so the new scale will be F Major, which has one flat. The 4th note of the F scale is Bb, so the next scale will be Bb Major.

A good first level goal is to learn all the scales having up to 3 sharps and 3 flats for a total of seven scales. Learn them in this order: C, G, F, D, Bb, A, Eb. In this fashion you will learn the scales in the order which increases the sharps or flats by one for each two scales learned other than C Major, which, course has no sharps or flats.
A note on fingering: The fingering for the scales of G, D, and A is exactly the same as for C. The fingering for F Major is 1(thumb)-2-3-4 turn thumb under and continue with 1-2-3-4. The fingering for Bb is 2-1(thumb under)-2-3-1-2-3-4. The fingering for Eb is 2-1-2-3-4-1-2-3. The idea is to avoid using the thumb on the black keys when playing scales because it is awkward to turn the hand under or over a thumb on a black key. Comfort and ease of playing is critical in establishing the nerve pathways which will allow for ease in imagining how the scales "look" away from the piano.

Aids in helping to fix the scale pattern in your mind include:
1. Draw or copy from a book or from this page (above) a portion of the keyboard and make x's on the keys played. These can then be pasted to flashcards and used at odd moments to reinforce the scale 'pictures'.
2. Once the sound of the scale is firmly established in your mind, you can practice playing and/or singing and visualizing the scale, anywhere, anytime.
3. Remarkable progress can also be made by developing your "inner ear". To do this sing and visualize the scales without vocalizing. Be sure, however, that you are not using your throat muscles, sub-vocally when doing this. To be the most effective, this practice should be done completely mentally.

4. Some people find that visualizing the scales is easier if done in two parts. Split the scale into two four-note groups (tetrachords). In the scale of C, this would be C, D, E, F and G, A, B, C. Visualize the groups separately, then put them together again.

5. As the flats and sharps are added one by one to each new scale, pay close attention to the way the contours of the scales change. Each scale has it's characteristic contour or "look" of black keys against white. In your mind make the black notes which are actually struck a bit darker than the ones which are not. Also pay particular attention to the transition of white to black and black to white keys. Is the particular interval a half-tone (with no intervening key) or a whole-tone (with a white key in between)?

6. The goal in learning to visualize the scale patterns is really to see the pattern as a "gestalt" as you would see a work of art, not as an assemblage of separate pieces but a total field. The it is as important to be able to "place in your mind's eye" the notes which ARE NOT struck as well as those that are, even thought the notes which ARE struck are "in relief" so to speak and stand out from the ones not struck. Learning to do this can only be accomplished through attentive, not automatic or mindless practice.

Superimposing the Keyboard Scales Onto the Staff

Now that you can play and sing the major scale in several keys and can recognize with some fluency the names of the notes on the staff, it is time to tackle the task of combining these two 'databases'. This process is similar to the one employed in learning to play and sing the scales.

Beginning again with the scale of C Major, the first step is to write the scale of C Major on staff paper (or you may own a book which has the scales written, though the exercise of writing them on your own is helpful). Again begin with the scale as written in your own vocal range, whether with a treble or bass clef.

Notice that the staff is metered (4/4). It is always helpful to have a sense of meter when playing scales. This helps to keep the playing rhythmically smooth and even. The first several times you do the following instructions you may want to count 1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4...etc. Granted this may be too much to do at the beginning but try it after your first couple of attempts.
Now while looking at the notes on the staff, play the C Major scale as you did when learning to play the scale for the first time. Instead of looking at the keyboard, however, you are now looking at the staff and carrying a mental picture of the keyboard somewhere else in your mind. This allows you to play and not lose your place on the keyboard while your eyes are constantly focusing on the staff. Do not look down at your hands as this will only serve confuse you. It is a great temptation to keep looking down and then back up, but this constant re-focusing actually impedes your progress, so make every effort to keep your eyes focussed on the staff. This cannot be emphasized enough.
At the same time you are thus, learning to associate the look of the note on the staff with the note on the keyboard. Be sure you are playing the note on keyboard that exactly corresponds to the note on the staff. For example, if you play middle C, make sure you're looking at middle middle C on the staff.
Once you are able to track the notes easily with your eyes while playing the notes on the keyboard, begin to sing the degree numbers of the tones of the scale. Then the solfege syllables and then the letter names. These three associations are the same ones you sang when learning to play the scale. They must now be transferred to the locations on the staff, within the context of each different scale. Learn one scale at a time.
After you feel comfortable playing and singing any given scale, it is time to wean yourself from the keyboard, as before when learning to playing the scales by touch alone. Take the sheet of paper with the given scale and see if you can sing the notes while visualzing the keyboard. You may want to finger the scale in the air or on a table top first. But eventually you will just sing the scale. Ultimately you will want to "sing" the scale mentally without vocalizing. You may even want to mentally visualize the notes without using the written scale. This is the iron test of your ability to combine all the skills you have learned into one simple act: Hearing the scale as you sing it mentally while visualizing the staff and keyboard either simultaneously or alternately. Try using the three different ways of singing: letters, numbers, solfege. Solfege, for our purposes, is of course, the most vital way of doing this.
What you have learn thus far is to read and sing the major scale (in however many keys) sequentially. Music does have stepwise (or scalewise) passages, but frequently the notes jump around so it is important to be able to jump at random from one note in a scale to another that might be a couple or even many steps away. This brings us to the topic of learning the sights and sounds of the intervals that are found within the major scale. Do not wait to learn all the scales before going on to study these intervalic relationships as described in the next section. Again begin interval training with those scales you know sequentially while continuing to learn new keys as above.

Learning the Sounds of the Intervals

This section has been developed in the light of the fact that this website cannot offer a practicum for learning the sounds of the intervals simply because it is not equipped with sound files nor the program files which would be necessary to teach these sounds. That said, I hope the following information will aid you in this area of your sight-singing education.
Of all the skill in sight-singing this one requires the most effort for the majority of people. We are, by and large a visually oriented culture, not an aurally oriented one. For this and other reasons an approach which includes the use of "ear-training" software or at least a tape recording of the sounds to be learned is almost imperative, even if one is taking a class in school. Much of the basic tutorials in music can now be gotten for free or for a very low fee. Probably because a lot of musicians are also programmers and create very nice programs on the side as freeware or shareware. Two other websites for finding ear-training software:

Most ear-training programs first get the student to hear and produce the intervals from 'do' ascending to any given degree of the major scale and then from 'do' descending to any given degree of the major scale. Thus you learn to hear major 2nds, major 3rds, perfect fourths, perfect fifths, major 6ths, major 7ths and perfect octaves and their inverses. Usually one concentrates on the difference between two intervals, say the major 2nd and major 3rd, or the major 3rd and the perfect 5th etc. One gradually increases the number of intervals worked with at any given time, until one can recognize and produce any interval at will.

It is very important to try to hear the interval BEFORE actually singing it. The process whereby many students grope around for the "right" sound with their voices, as opposed to mentally grasping the sound with their inner ears and THEN producing the sound vocally results in much wasted time and a sense of an external vs. internal processing. It is only when you can hear the interval mentally, that you can be sure of the sounds you will sing, not the other way around. So, take your time and LISTEN before singing. With time, the amount of time necessary to make this transition is so infinitesimal as to seem non-existent, so connected are the vocal chords to the mental creative impulse.

Another important remark: Often people will use familiar melodies to serve as reminders for how intervals sound. For example the song "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" begins with the interval of an octave. If you know that popular song, you know what that interval sounds like and when you recognize an octave in a piece you are singing you may find it useful to remember the sound of those first two notes. Lists of such "interval associations" are fun to create as I found when creating my own:

Intervalic associations (first two notes of the song unless otherwise indicated:

Ascending intervals and their inverses:

Major 2nd  do-re (1-2):             Oh Susanah ("Oh, I Come from...")
	                   re-do (2-1):	
		 
Major 3rd  do-mi (1-3):             Oh, When the Saints...,
                                                   Michael, Row the Boat Ashore
	                  mi-do (3-1):	            Swing Low Sweet Chariot,
			                                                Lou, Lou, Skip to My Lou

Minor 3rd        do-me*:	            Greensleeves ("Alas, My Love")
	                          me-do:		
		 
Perfect	      do-fa (1-4);             Hineh Ma Tov (1-4-4-4 minor)
4th			                                          Good King Wenceslas (Ending:"Fu-u-el")
			                                               The very beginning of Nutcraker Suite.

Perfect	     do-so (1-5):              Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star
5th
	                 so-do (5-1):	             Eerie Canal, ("I had a mule")

Major 6th  do-la (1-6):             Momma's Little Baby Loves Shortnin' Bread
	                  la-do (6-1):             Nobody Knows the Trouble I Seen
                                                  [really mi-so]

Major 7th   do-ti (1-7):             Bali High (1-(8)-7), The Pajama Game

Octave	      do-do (1-8):            Somewhere Over the Rainbow



Desending Intervals (and their inverses):

Minor 2nd  do-ti (1-7):            Joy to the World, Ave Maria
	                   ti-do (7-1):            Fascination (ti-do-mi-so-do[high])

Minor 3rd  do-la (1-6):            Momma's Little Baby (second part)
                                                 "Put on the skillet": do-do-la-so...)
	                   la-do (6-1):	          The Wave (So close your eyes)

Perfect	       do-so (1-5)            Who Can Retell (do-do-so-do...), 
4th                                            The Dodgers Pep Song,
                                                 "Shave and a haircut, two bits"
	                   so-do (5-1):          Hark, the Herald Angels Sing
                                                 Red River Valley ("From this valley...")
			                                              Auld Lang Syne ("Should auld...")
Perfect	        do-fa (1-4):			 
5th
	                    fa-do (4-1):

Minor 6th    do-mi (1-3):
	                    mi-do (3-1):         Excerpt: Schubert's "Rosamunde"
			                                              Overture (mi-do-so, mi-do-so)

Minor 7th     do-re (1-2):
	                     re-do (2-1):

Exercises to practice singing intervals

To preface the exercises that follow a brief explanation as to how to name the intervals of the major scale is necessary. As previously mentioned, ear-training programs invariably begin by naming intervals starting from "do" either upwards or downwards. That is the approach that has been taken in the material that follows.
The way to identify an interval by name as it occurs in the major scale is to count up or down from "do" (giving "do" the number "1" whether "do" is the bottom note or the top note of the interval). For example, in the key of C Major, the interval ascending from C to A would be counted using the numbers one to six for each key starting with C. (C-D-E-F-G-A OR 1-2-3-4-5-6). Therefore the name of that interval is a 6th. In the ascending major scale the following intervals are termed "major" intervals: the 2nd, the 3rd, the 6th and the 7th. Thus, again in the key of C Major, the interval from C up to D is a major 2nd(do-re), from C up to E is a major 3rd(do-mi), from C up to A is a major 6th(do-la) and from C up to B(do-ti) is a major 7th. The remaining intervals are called "perfect" (a term stemming from medaeval theory having to do with the fact that whether part of the ascending or descending or major or minor scales these intervals remain unchanged--see the discussion immediately below). Thus from C up to F(do-fa), still in the key of C major, is a perfect 4th, from C up to G(do-so) a perfect fifth and from C up to C(do-do) a perfect octave.

The "major" intervals have "minor variants" which are one half-tone smaller. Thus, for instance, the interval from C to Eb is a minor third and the interval from C to Ab is a minor 6th etc. Analytically, if you count the half-tones the major 3rd consists of 4 half-tones and the minor third consists of 3 half-tones. None of the minor variants occur in the ascending major scale. Only notes with have "accidentals" (sharps, flats or naturals other than those appearing in the key signature) may become minor in this specific context.

The descending major scale, on the other hand, contains only minor and perfect intervals. Thus, in the C Major scale, the interval from C down to B(do-ti) is a minor 2nd, from C down to A(do-la) is a minor 3rd, from C down to E(do-mi) is a minor 6th and from C down to D(do-re) is a minor 7th. These minor intervals are the inversions of the ascending intervals which were all major. Check the actual number of half-tones and compare them to the "major variants" to convince yourself that in each case the major interval is one half tone larger than the minor interval of the same name. The perfect intervals (the 4th(do-so), the 5th(do-fa) and the octave remain perfect).

These few naming rules must be memorized in order to quickly understand which interval you are seeing. For it is only when you know the specific interval that you can then translate it immediately into sound. Fortunately, the work you have done so far, in learning to visualize the scales will be of immense help here, because if you can visualize the notes in a particular scale and you know the rules for naming the intervals of the major scale, you can immediately translate the position of the note in the scale into an intervalic relationship with "do". For example, in the key of Bb (assuming you have done your scale work) you will recognize the Eb as the fourth note of the scale and therefore can name the interval of Bb to Eb as a perfect fourth. The work you have done in learning to visualize this relationship spatially at the piano makes this perfect fourth distance more concrete that it would otherwise be. Unlike the staff spacing where both Bb-Eb and Bb-E "look" the same in terms of lines and spaces (granted the Eb key signature shortens the actual distance) the piano truly depicts the difference in spacing between these two intervals. To summarize yet again, it is the visualization of the keyboard that simplifies the task of learning to recognize any given interval.

EXERCISE: Create a series of seven to thirteen 3x5 cards in each of the scales you have learned or are learning. On the front of each card in the top right hand corner will be the key of the scale in small print. In the center of the card draw a small five-lined staff with either a treble or bass clef and a note in the scale. On the back of the card, write the letter name (optional, depending on your fluency at reading note names), the solfege syllable of the note, and the degree number of the note. Use the card to identify the interval by name (e.g. a major sixth, a perfect fourth etc.), or by solfege syllable. Do only one form of identification at a time and alternate as time permits. After you are able to identitfy the interval you can begin to sing it, starting from 'do', at first using the 'do' below the interval and then gradually starting to use 'do' from above. You can check yourself at the piano.
1. Methods for hearing and, subsequently, producing the intervals vary. Here are several techniques:
1.Sing down or up the scale, to the next note and then repeat the two outer notes several times to impress the sound of the interval upon your aural memory.
2.Use melodic associations as discussed above.
3.Use intervals you already know to jump to an adjacent tone to the note you want and then to sing up or down a half or whole tone to that desired note. For instance, if you are learning to hear the interval of a minor sixth, and you know what a perfect 5th sounds like, you can sing or hear the 5th and then add a half-tone to it. If you are working on a major 7th, sing the octave and then substract a half-tone from it.
4.Learn to "ground yourself in do" (see discussion below on Getting the Feel for the Key) and use that sense to find the next note. For instance if you are singing "la" and want to sing up to "re", hear the minor 3rd "la-do" and then add a whole tone.

The following chart consists of the pentatonic intervals (i.e. those intervals which can be derived from the pentatonic scale: "do-re-mi-so-la-do"). This scale does not use the 4th or 7th degrees of the major scale and therefore can be used to learn the "easier" intervals first in the form of a thoroughly entertaining "patter" which is described following the diagram.

Pick a "do" in the comforable lower part of your range (but not too low, just low enough that the higher "do" is not a strain on your voice). Begin to feel a "silent beat" (if necessary, use a swinging arm as described in the exercises on rhythms) and count 1 2 1 2... for a couple of measure to establish a steady tempo. A beat per second or a little faster should be fine. When you are ready, start singing according to the following rhythm and syllable scheme. Note that this is pictured in the key of C Major; however, you can, and should visualize the exercise in various keys on the staff (and if necessary on the keyboard) while you are singing it.(Note: the superscrits and subscripts just to the left of some of the solfege syllables signify that the note is either higher or lower than the beginning "do".
RHYTHMIC LAYOUT FOR PENTATONIC DRILL IN KEY OF C MAJOR

Learn the top half by heart before starting to learn the bottom half (which reverses the direction of the intervals). Your goal is to memorize the chart as soon as possible so that you can sing it anytime anywhere.

Getting a Feel for the Key or "DO" of a Song

The term "tonal music" (in the typically Western European style that classical music is based upon) means that the piece of music in question gravitates, as a whole, to a particular note of the scale, that note being given the name "do". This means that all of the other notes in the scale (say, for the time being it is a major, as opposed to minor, scale) have less "weight" so to speak or are less stable and want to move ultimately to 'do' or the home note. To a sight-singer, the sense of where this home note is no matter what note one is actually singing at any given moment, is a very important aspect of sight-singing. This ability to always hear the overall tonality of the music as one is singing serves as a hub in relation to which one can easily hear the array of notes (the other scale degrees) around it as the spokes of a wheel.
In this way one need not merely move from interval to interval but can appreciate each note in its relationship to the grounding note. Depending on one's experience, it is oftentimes easier to find the sound of the next note to be sung by relating it to 'do' rather than by trying to hear it in intervalic relationship to the preceding note. For instance the sound of the interval from 'so' descending to 're' may be heard and sung more easily if you hear the perfect fifth from 'so' to 'do' first and then hear the major second from 'do' to 're', rather than by trying to hear the descending perfect fourth directly. Though this procedure is somewhat indirect, it is a useful step in learning to locate an otherwise "tricky" interval. Over time the direct apprehension of the descending fourth will occur.

One way to get a sense of this ground (the key, the home, the 'do' or the tonic are all ways of expressing this 'ground') of a piece is by the use of childrens' songs or folk melodies. Try singing a few familiar such songs as for example, Mary Had a Little Lamb, Jingle Bells, O Susanah!, The Farmer in the Dell, Amazing Grace, Swing Low Sweet Chariot etc... If you can remember the song to the end you'll notice that the very last note is invariably "do". Also interesting is that quite often the first note will either begin on "do" or "mi" or "so". These three notes are the most stable notes of the scale, "do", of course, being the most stable of the three. Together these three notes form the basic harmonic structure around which the other notes of the scale are embroidered. Sounded together 'do', 'mi' and 'so' have a pleasing and stable quality to the ear. In theoretical terminology these three tones form a triad (a three note chord). But we are getting a little ahead of ourselves.
Try singing the same song you just sang a minute ago but this time, stop somewhere, unexpectedly in the middle the song, perhaps at the end of a phrase or exactly in the middle of a phrase (e.g. in Mary Had a Little Lamb, the middle of the first phrase ends just before you sing the word "Mary" for the second time). As you sing the words "little lamb" that third time, stop on the word "lamb". Now stop singing and see if you can hear the 'ground' or 'home' note of the song (i.e. 'do'). As you get more practice with this technique you should be able to stop anywhere and hear 'do'.

Once you can hear the key of a piece as you are singing it, the next step is to figure out which degree of the scale the piece starts on. In the case of Mary Had A Little Lamb, what do you think the first note is in solfege?

Singing Simple Musical Notation

The last step in this short course is to bring the foregoing together in the context of reading simple melodies. There are many materials one can use to do this and a balance should be struck between reading familiar simple folk or children's songs and unfamiliar melodies as are found in many graded collections devoted to sight-singing.

Reading may not be the appropriate word here, for it takes time to assimilate and combine all the necessary steps which would enable one to look at a piece of music for the first time and with no prepartaion begin to sing the notes as one would pick a book for the first time and begin to read the words. The procedure that follows must be practiced over and over until it becomes automatic. Many steps will be abandonned as you start to wean yourself away from the keyboard. Do not feel you have mastered a piece until you can sing it in strict rhythm using a "silent beat" with the solfege syllables and away from the piano.

Techniques for Learning and Practicing Sight-Singing Skills

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Techniques for Learning and Practicing
Sight-Singing Skills